# CHI.R # Functions to read and manipulate data from the CHI760 potentiostat/galvanostat # Taha Ahmed, Jan 2011 - Feb 2011 # CONTENTS source("/home/taha/chepec/chetex/common/R/common.R") # >>>> ocp2df # >>>> chronocm2df # >>>> chronoamp2df # >>>> amperometry2df # >>>> cv2df # >>>> lsv2df ################################################## ################### ocp2df ####################### ################################################## ocp2df <- function(datafilename) { ## Description: ## Reads potential-time data (from CHI 760 potentiostat) ## and returns a dataframe with the data and ## the data attributes (experimental conditions). ## Usage: ## ocp2df(datafilename) ## Arguments: ## datafilename: text string with full path to experimental file ## Value: ## Dataframe with the following columns (and no extra attributes): ## $ sampleid : chr ## $ time : num ## $ current : num ## $ currentdensity : num ## $ timediff : num ## $ dIdt : num ## $ didt : num ## $ charge : num ## $ chargedensity : num ## $ InitE : num ## $ SampleInterval : num ## $ RunTime : num ## $ QuietTime : num ## $ Sensitivity : num ## Note: ## The CH Instruments 760 potentiostat records all data ## using standard SI units, therefore this function ## assumes all potential values to be in volts, ## currents to be in amperes, charges in Coulombs, ## time in seconds, and so on. # datafile <- file(datafilename, "r") chifile <- readLines(datafile, n = -1) #read all lines of input file close(datafile) # sampleid <- ProvideSampleId(datafilename) # rgxp.number <- "^\\-?\\d\\.\\d+[e,]" # regexp that matches a decimal number at the beginning of the line. # Matches numbers with or without a negative sign (hyphen), # followed by one digit before the decimal, a decimal point, # and an arbitrary number of digits after the decimal point, # immediately followed by either the letter 'e' or a comma. # Note that backslashes are escaped due to the way R handles strings. # numrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.number, chifile) # Save the match length attribute to another variable, numrow.len <- attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") # then scrap the attribute of the original variable. attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL # i <- seq(1, length(numrow.idx) - 1, 1) j <- seq(2, length(numrow.idx), 1) # Start indices of data ranges starts <- which(numrow.idx[i] != 1 & numrow.idx[j] == 1) + 1 # End indices, except for the last ends <- which(numrow.idx[i] == 1 & numrow.idx[j] != 1) # Fix the last index of end indices ends <- c(ends, length(numrow.idx)) # ff <- data.frame(NULL) for (s in 1:length(starts)) { zz <- textConnection(chifile[starts[s]:ends[s]], "r") ff <- rbind(ff, data.frame(stringsAsFactors = FALSE, sampleid, matrix(scan(zz, what = numeric(), sep = ","), ncol = 2, byrow = T))) close(zz) } names(ff) <- c("sampleid", "time", "potential") # ### Collect attributes of this experiment # RunTime (sec) position.RunTime <- regexpr("^Run\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) RunTime <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.RunTime == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$RunTime <- RunTime # return(ff) } ################################################## ################# chronocm2df #################### ################################################## chronocm2df <- function(datafilename) { # Function description: chronocoulometry data # CH Instruments potentiostat records all data using standard SI units, # so all potential values are in volts, currents are in amperes, # charges in Coulombs, time in seconds, etc. # datafile <- file(datafilename, "r") chifile <- readLines(datafile, n = -1) #read all lines of input file close(datafile) # sampleid <- ProvideSampleId(datafilename) # rgxp.number <- "^\\-?\\d\\.\\d+[e,]" # regexp that matches a decimal number at the beginning of the line. # Matches numbers with or without a negative sign (hyphen), # followed by one digit before the decimal, a decimal point, # and an arbitrary number of digits after the decimal point, # immediately followed by either the letter 'e' or a comma. # Note that backslashes are escaped. # numrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.number, chifile) # Save the match length attribute to another variable, numrow.len <- attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") # then scrap the attribute of the original variable. attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL # i <- seq(1, length(numrow.idx) - 1, 1) j <- seq(2, length(numrow.idx), 1) # Start indices of data ranges starts <- which(numrow.idx[i] != 1 & numrow.idx[j] == 1) + 1 # End indices, except for the last ends <- which(numrow.idx[i] == 1 & numrow.idx[j] != 1) # Fix the last index of end indices ends <- c(ends, length(numrow.idx)) # ff <- data.frame(NULL) for (s in 1:length(starts)) { zz <- textConnection(chifile[starts[s]:ends[s]], "r") ff <- rbind(ff, data.frame(sampleid, step = factor(s), matrix(scan(zz, what = numeric(), sep = ","), ncol = 2, byrow = T))) close(zz) } names(ff) <- c("sampleid", "step", "time", "charge") # ### Collect attributes of this experiment # These attributes are specific for each kind of experiment, # be careful when adapting to other electrochemical data rgxp.attr <- c("^Init\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", "^Final\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", "^Step\\s", "^Pulse\\sWidth\\s\\(sec\\)", "^Sample\\sInterval\\s\\(s\\)", "^Quiet\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", "^Sensitivity\\s\\(A/V\\)") names.attr <- c("InitE", "FinalE", "Steps", "PulseWidth", "SamplingInterval", "QuietTime", "Sensitivity") for (n in 1:length(rgxp.attr)) { attrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.attr[n], chifile) attrow.len <- attr(attrow.idx, "match.length") attr(attrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL attr(ff, names.attr[n]) <- strsplit(chifile[which(attrow.idx == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2] } # return(ff) } ################################################## ################# chronoamp2df ################### ################################################## chronoamp2df <- function(datafilename, wearea = 1) { ## Description: ## Reads current-time data (from CHI 760 potentiostat) ## and returns a dataframe with the data and the ## data attributes (experimental conditions). ## Usage: ## chronoamp2df(datafilename, wearea) ## Arguments: ## datafilename: text string with full path to experimental file ## wearea: (optional) area of working electrode (in square centimeters) ## Value: ## Dataframe with the following columns (and no extra attributes): ## $ sampleid : chr ## $ step : num ## $ time : num ## $ current : num ## $ currentdensity : num ## $ InitE : num ## $ HighE : num ## $ LowE : num ## $ InitPN : chr ## $ Step : num ## $ Pulse width : num ## $ Sample interval : num ## $ Quiet Time : num ## $ Sensitivity : num ## Note: ## The CH Instruments 760 potentiostat records all data ## using standard SI units, therefore this function ## assumes all potential values to be in volts, ## currents to be in amperes, charges in Coulombs, ## time in seconds, and so on. # datafile <- file(datafilename, "r") chifile <- readLines(datafile, n = -1) #read all lines of input file close(datafile) # sampleid <- ProvideSampleId(datafilename) # rgxp.number <- "^\\-?\\d\\.\\d+[e,]" # regexp that matches a decimal number at the beginning of the line. # Matches numbers with or without a negative sign (hyphen), # followed by one digit before the decimal, a decimal point, # and an arbitrary number of digits after the decimal point, # immediately followed by either the letter 'e' or a comma. # Note that backslashes are escaped. # numrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.number, chifile) # Save the match length attribute to another variable, numrow.len <- attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") # then scrap the attribute of the original variable. attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL # i <- seq(1, length(numrow.idx) - 1, 1) j <- seq(2, length(numrow.idx), 1) # Start indices of data ranges starts <- which(numrow.idx[i] != 1 & numrow.idx[j] == 1) + 1 # End indices, except for the last ends <- which(numrow.idx[i] == 1 & numrow.idx[j] != 1) # Fix the last index of end indices ends <- c(ends, length(numrow.idx)) # ff <- data.frame(NULL) for (s in 1:length(starts)) { zz <- textConnection(chifile[starts[s]:ends[s]], "r") ff <- rbind(ff, data.frame(sampleid, step.current = s, matrix(scan(zz, what = numeric(), sep = ","), ncol = 2, byrow = T))) close(zz) } names(ff) <- c("sampleid", "step.current", "time", "current") # Calculate current density currentdensity <- ff$current / wearea ff <- cbind(ff, currentdensity = currentdensity) # ### Collect attributes of this experiment # InitE (volt) position.InitE <- regexpr("^Init\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) InitE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.InitE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$InitE <- InitE # HighE (volt) position.HighE <- regexpr("^High\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) HighE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.HighE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$HighE <- HighE # LowE (volt) position.LowE <- regexpr("^Low\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) LowE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.LowE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$LowE <- LowE # InitPN position.InitPN <- regexpr("^Init\\sP/N", chifile) InitPN <- strsplit(chifile[which(position.InitPN == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2] ff$InitPN <- InitPN # Steps (total number of steps) position.Steps <- regexpr("^Step\\s", chifile) Steps <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.Steps == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$Steps <- Steps # Pulse width (s) position.PulseWidth <- regexpr("^Pulse\\sWidth\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) PulseWidth <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.PulseWidth == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$PulseWidth <- PulseWidth # Sample interval (s) position.SampleInterval <- regexpr("^Sample\\sInterval\\s\\(s\\)", chifile) SampleInterval <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.SampleInterval == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$SampleInterval <- SampleInterval # Quiet Time (s) position.QuietTime <- regexpr("^Quiet\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) QuietTime <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.QuietTime == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$QuietTime <- QuietTime # Sensitivity (A/V) position.Sensitivity <- regexpr("^Sensitivity\\s\\(A/V\\)", chifile) Sensitivity <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.Sensitivity == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$Sensitivity <- Sensitivity # return(ff) } ################################################## ############### amperometry2df ################### ################################################## amperometry2df <- function(datafilename, wearea = 1) { ## Description: ## Reads current-time data (from CHI 760 potentiostat) ## and returns a dataframe with the data, ## the data attributes (experimental conditions), ## and some calculated parameters (charge, didt, etc.) ## Usage: ## amperometry2df(datafilename, wearea) ## Arguments: ## datafilename: text string with full path to experimental file ## wearea: (optional) area of working electrode (in square centimeter) ## Value: ## Dataframe with the following columns (and no extra attributes): ## $ sampleid : chr ## $ time : num ## $ current : num ## $ currentdensity : num ## $ timediff : num ## $ dIdt : num ## $ didt : num ## $ charge : num ## $ chargedensity : num ## $ InitE : num ## $ SampleInterval : num ## $ RunTime : num ## $ QuietTime : num ## $ Sensitivity : num ## Note: ## The CH Instruments 760 potentiostat records all data ## using standard SI units, therefore this function ## assumes all potential values to be in volts, ## currents to be in amperes, charges in Coulombs, ## time in seconds, and so on. # datafile <- file(datafilename, "r") chifile <- readLines(datafile, n = -1) #read all lines of input file close(datafile) # sampleid <- ProvideSampleId(datafilename) # rgxp.number <- "^\\-?\\d\\.\\d+[e,]" # regexp that matches a decimal number at the beginning of the line. # Matches numbers with or without a negative sign (hyphen), # followed by one digit before the decimal, a decimal point, # and an arbitrary number of digits after the decimal point, # immediately followed by either the letter 'e' or a comma. # Note that backslashes are escaped due to the way R handles strings. # numrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.number, chifile) # Save the match length attribute to another variable, numrow.len <- attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") # then scrap the attribute of the original variable. attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL # i <- seq(1, length(numrow.idx) - 1, 1) j <- seq(2, length(numrow.idx), 1) # Start indices of data ranges starts <- which(numrow.idx[i] != 1 & numrow.idx[j] == 1) + 1 # End indices, except for the last ends <- which(numrow.idx[i] == 1 & numrow.idx[j] != 1) # Fix the last index of end indices ends <- c(ends, length(numrow.idx)) # ff <- data.frame(NULL) for (s in 1:length(starts)) { zz <- textConnection(chifile[starts[s]:ends[s]], "r") ff <- rbind(ff, data.frame(stringsAsFactors = FALSE, sampleid, matrix(scan(zz, what = numeric(), sep = ","), ncol = 2, byrow = T))) close(zz) } names(ff) <- c("sampleid", "time", "current") # Calculate current density currentdensity <- ff$current / wearea ff <- cbind(ff, currentdensity = currentdensity) # Calculate time and current diffs timediff <- c(ff$time[1], diff(ff$time)) currentdiff <- c(ff$current[1], diff(ff$current)) currentdensitydiff <- c(ff$currentdensity[1], diff(ff$currentdensity)) # Calculate differential of current and current density dIdt <- currentdiff / timediff didt <- currentdensitydiff / timediff # Calculate charge and charge density charge <- cumsum(ff$current) chargedensity <- cumsum(ff$currentdensity) # Update ff dataframe ff <- cbind(ff, timediff = timediff, dIdt = dIdt, didt = didt, charge = charge, chargedensity = chargedensity) # ### Collect attributes of this experiment # InitE (volt) position.InitE <- regexpr("^Init\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) InitE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.InitE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$InitE <- InitE # SampleInterval (volt) position.SampleInterval <- regexpr("^Sample\\sInterval\\s\\(s\\)", chifile) SampleInterval <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.SampleInterval == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$SampleInterval <- SampleInterval # Run time (seconds) position.RunTime <- regexpr("^Run\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) RunTime <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.RunTime == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$RunTime <- RunTime # Quiet time (seconds) position.QuietTime <- regexpr("^Quiet\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) QuietTime <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.QuietTime == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$QuietTime <- QuietTime # Sensitivity (ampere per volt) position.Sensitivity <- regexpr("^Sensitivity\\s\\(A/V\\)", chifile) Sensitivity <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.Sensitivity == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$Sensitivity <- Sensitivity # return(ff) } ################################################## #################### cv2df ####################### ################################################## cv2df <- function(datafilename, wearea = 1) { # Function description: # CH Instruments potentiostat records all data using standard SI units, # so all potential values are in volts, currents are in amperes, # charges in Coulombs, time in seconds, etc. # cvfile <- file(datafilename, "r") chifile <- readLines(cvfile, n = -1) #read all lines of input file close(cvfile) # sampleid <- ProvideSampleId(datafilename) # rgxp.number <- "^\\-?\\d\\.\\d+," # regexp that matches a decimal number at the beginning of the line. # Matches numbers with or without a negative sign (hyphen), # followed by one digit before the decimal, a decimal point, # and an arbitrary number of digits after the decimal point, # immediately followed by a comma. # Note that backslashes are escaped. # numrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.number, chifile) # Save the match length attribute to another variable, numrow.len <- attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") # then scrap the attribute of the original variable. attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL # i <- seq(1, length(numrow.idx) - 1, 1) j <- seq(2, length(numrow.idx), 1) # Start indices of data ranges starts <- which(numrow.idx[i] != 1 & numrow.idx[j] == 1) + 1 # End indices, except for the last ends <- which(numrow.idx[i] == 1 & numrow.idx[j] != 1) # Fix the last index of end indices ends <- c(ends, length(numrow.idx)) # ff <- data.frame(NULL) for (s in 1:length(starts)) { zz <- textConnection(chifile[starts[s]:ends[s]], "r") ff <- rbind(ff, data.frame(sampleid, cycle = as.integer(ceiling(s/2)), segment = s, matrix(scan(zz, what = numeric(), sep = ","), ncol = 3, byrow = T))) close(zz) } # Column names after initial assignment names(ff) <- c("sampleid", "cycle", "segment", "potential", "current", "charge") # Calculate current density currentdensity <- ff$current / wearea ff <- cbind(ff[, 1:5], currentdensity = currentdensity, charge = ff[, 6]) ## Collect attributes of this experiment # InitE (volt) position.InitE <- regexpr("^Init\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) InitE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.InitE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$InitE <- InitE # HighE (volt) position.HighE <- regexpr("^High\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) HighE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.HighE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$HighE <- HighE # LowE (volt) position.LowE <- regexpr("^Low\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) LowE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.LowE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$LowE <- LowE # InitPN (positive or negative) position.InitPN <- regexpr("^Init\\sP/N", chifile) InitPN <- strsplit(chifile[which(position.InitPN == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2] ff$InitPN <- InitPN # ScanRate (volt per second) position.ScanRate <- regexpr("^Scan\\sRate\\s\\(V/s\\)", chifile) ScanRate <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.ScanRate == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$ScanRate <- ScanRate # Segments, number of position.Segments <- regexpr("^Segment\\s=", chifile) Segments <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.Segments == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$Segments <- Segments # SampleInterval (volt) position.SampleInterval <- regexpr("^Sample\\sInterval\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) SampleInterval <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.SampleInterval == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$SampleInterval <- SampleInterval # Quiet time (seconds) position.QuietTime <- regexpr("^Quiet\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) QuietTime <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.QuietTime == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$QuietTime <- QuietTime # Sensitivity (ampere per volt) position.Sensitivity <- regexpr("^Sensitivity\\s\\(A/V\\)", chifile) Sensitivity <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.Sensitivity == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$Sensitivity <- Sensitivity # return(ff) } ################################################## ################### lsv2df ####################### ################################################## lsv2df <- function(datafilename, wearea = 1) { ## Description: ## Reads LSV datafiles from CHI 760 potentiostat ## (potential, current, and charge) ## and returns a dataframe with the data, ## the data attributes (experimental conditions), ## and calculated current density and charge density. ## Usage: ## lsv2df(datafilename, wearea) ## Arguments: ## datafilename: text string with full path to experimental file ## wearea: (optional) area of working electrode (in square centimeter) ## Value: ## Dataframe with the following columns (and no extra attributes): ## $ sampleid : chr (id) ## $ segment : num (id) ## $ potential : num (measure) ## $ current : num (measure) ## $ charge : num (measure) ## $ currentdensity : num (measure) ## $ chargedensity : num (measure) ## $ InitE : num (id) ## $ FinalE : num (id) ## $ ScanRate : num (id) ## $ SampleInterval : num (id) ## $ QuietTime : num (id) ## $ Sensitivity : num (id) ## Note: ## The CH Instruments 760 potentiostat records all data ## using standard SI units, therefore this function ## assumes all potential values to be in volts, ## currents to be in amperes, charges in Coulombs, ## time in seconds, and so on. # lsvfile <- file(datafilename, "r") chifile <- readLines(lsvfile, n = -1) #read all lines of input file close(lsvfile) # sampleid <- ProvideSampleId(datafilename) # rgxp.number <- "^\\-?\\d\\.\\d+," # regexp that matches a decimal number at the beginning of the line. # Matches numbers with or without a negative sign (hyphen), # followed by one digit before the decimal, a decimal point, # and an arbitrary number of digits after the decimal point, # immediately followed by a comma. # Note that backslashes are escaped. # numrow.idx <- regexpr(rgxp.number, chifile) # Save the match length attribute to another variable, numrow.len <- attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") # then scrap the attribute of the original variable. attr(numrow.idx, "match.length") <- NULL # i <- seq(1, length(numrow.idx) - 1, 1) j <- seq(2, length(numrow.idx), 1) # Start indices of data ranges starts <- which(numrow.idx[i] != 1 & numrow.idx[j] == 1) + 1 # End indices, except for the last ends <- which(numrow.idx[i] == 1 & numrow.idx[j] != 1) # Fix the last index of end indices ends <- c(ends, length(numrow.idx)) # ff <- data.frame(NULL) for (s in 1:length(starts)) { zz <- textConnection(chifile[starts[s]:ends[s]], "r") ff <- rbind(ff, data.frame(stringsAsFactors = FALSE, sampleid, segment = s, matrix(scan(zz, what = numeric(), sep = ","), ncol = 3, byrow = T))) close(zz) } names(ff) <- c("sampleid", "segment", "potential", "current", "charge") # Calculate current density currentdensity <- ff$current / wearea ff <- cbind(ff, currentdensity = currentdensity) # Calculate charge density chargedensity <- ff$charge / wearea ff <- cbind(ff, chargedensity = chargedensity) # ### Collect attributes of this experiment # InitE (volt) position.InitE <- regexpr("^Init\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) InitE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.InitE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$InitE <- InitE # FinalE (volt) position.FinalE <- regexpr("^Final\\sE\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) FinalE <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.FinalE == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$FinalE <- FinalE # ScanRate (volt per second) position.ScanRate <- regexpr("^Scan\\sRate\\s\\(V/s\\)", chifile) ScanRate <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.ScanRate == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$ScanRate <- ScanRate # SampleInterval (volt) position.SampleInterval <- regexpr("^Sample\\sInterval\\s\\(V\\)", chifile) SampleInterval <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.SampleInterval == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$SampleInterval <- SampleInterval # Quiet time (seconds) position.QuietTime <- regexpr("^Quiet\\sTime\\s\\(sec\\)", chifile) QuietTime <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.QuietTime == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$QuietTime <- QuietTime # Sensitivity (ampere per volt) position.Sensitivity <- regexpr("^Sensitivity\\s\\(A/V\\)", chifile) Sensitivity <- as.numeric(strsplit(chifile[which(position.Sensitivity == 1)], "\\s=\\s")[[1]][2]) ff$Sensitivity <- Sensitivity # return(ff) }